Risk For Developmental Coordination Disorder Research Articles

The Dutch Lifelines Cohort: The risk of developmental coordination disorder runs in families.

The Dutch Lifelines Cohort: The risk of developmental coordination disorder runs in families.

Developmental coordination disorder in preterm children: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

This study aimed to review the prevalence of developmental coordination disorder (DCD) in individuals born preterm and systematically explore this prevalence according to gestational age and different assessment cut-offs and compare it to full-term peers. The eligibility criteria were observational and experimental studies reporting the prevalence of DCD in preterm individuals. A systematic search was performed in databases from inception until March 2022. Two independent reviewers performed the selection. Study quality assessment was performed using the checklists from Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI). Data analysis was performed on Excel and Review Manager Software 5.4. Among the 1774 studies identified, 32 matched the eligibility criteria. The pooled estimate rate of the DCD rate in preterm was 21% (95% confidence interval [CI] 17.8-24.3). The estimate rates were higher as gestational age decreased, and preterm children are two times more likely to have DCD than their full-term peers risk ratio (RR) 2.2 (95% CI 1.77-2.79). The limitation was high heterogeneity between studies; the assessment tools, cut-off points and age at assessment were diverse. This study provided evidence that preterm children are at higher risk for DCD than full-term children, and the risks increased as gestational age decreased.

Cumulative Prenatal Risk Factors and Developmental Coordination Disorder in Young Children.

To examine the effect of cumulative prenatal risk factors (RFs) on the presence of Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) in young children. Participants (N = 589, 338 boys, Mage = 4.5 ± 0.5years) were from a larger cohort study, the Coordination and Activity Tracking in Children (CATCH). Motor coordination was assessed using the Movement Assessment Battery for Children- 2nd Edition. Children were classified as at risk for DCD (DCDr) based on European Academy of Childhood Disability guidelines. RFs were obtained through a parent-completed survey. A multiple logistic regression was conducted to examine the effect of the RFs on DCD. Results showed that the odds of a child having DCDr are significantly higher with a greater total number of prenatal RFs, after adjustment for mother's age at child's birth, child's sex, child's age, marital status and total annual household income (OR = 1.48, p < 0.01). These findings warrant further investigation into the cumulative impact of multiple prenatal RFs and whether specific combinations of RFs might be more strongly linked to DCD than others. These results provide additional insight into possible causes and prevention of DCD.

Predictive validity of the Denver developmental screening test (Denver-II) to detect risk of developmental coordination disorder in preterm children

IntroductionThe Denver-II is widely used as a screening tool, however, no studies were found about its validity to predict the risk of Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) in preterm children. ObjectiveTo verify the predictive validity and accuracy of the Denver-II to identify the risk of DCD in preterm children. MethodsMethodological study with 121 preterm children, evaluated with the Denver-II at ages 1, 2, 3, 4 and/or 5 years and with the Movement Assessment Battery for Children (MABC-2) at 7 years. Univariate binary logistic regression analyses were performed and ROC curves were derived. ResultsChildren classified as suspect by Denver-II at 2, 3, and 4 years were, respectively, 3.45, 7.40 and 6.06 times more likely to have a risk of DCD on the MABC-2 (p < 0.05). The area under the ROC curve was considered fair for ages 2 (0.60, 95 % CI 0.50–0.70), 3 (0.61, 95 % CI 0.51–0.71) and 4 (0.64, 95 % CI 0.54–0.74) years. The greater the number of suspects in Denver-II over time, the greater the probability of risk of DCD in the MABC-2 (p < 0.001). ConclusionsGlobal developmental assessment with the Denver-II at ages 2 to 4 years is considered to have fair accuracy to discriminate risk of DCD at school age in children born preterm.

Developmental Coordination Disorder and Unhealthy Weight Status in Taiwanese Children: The Roles of Sex and Age.

This study aimed to provide up-to-date information regarding the estimated prevalence of developmental coordination disorder (DCD) in Taiwanese children. Their unhealthy weight status was also examined, as well as the roles of sex and age. This cross-sectional study recruited 825 children aged between 4 and 12 years and categorized them into either typically developing children (TD, >16th percentile) or children at risk for DCD (rDCD, ≤16th percentile) based on the result of the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2nd edition. Body mass index was calculated to determine weight status (i.e., normal weight, underweight, overweight, and obesity). The estimated prevalence of rDCD was 9.7%. There were significantly more boys in the rDCD groups (p < 0.001). Additionally, preschool children with rDCD were at greater risk for being underweight. However, there was no significant group difference which was found for overweight/obesity. A lower prevalence of rDCD was found in this study. Nevertheless, children with rDCD may be more likely to be underweight in early childhood. Early intervention should be provided to target this population.

Perinatal risk factors for developmental coordination disorder in children born extremely preterm.

Children born extremely preterm frequently have developmental coordination disorder (DCD). We aimed to evaluate perinatal risk factors for DCD. Swedish national cohort study including 226 children born before 27 gestational weeks without major neurodevelopmental disabilities at 6.5 years. Outcome was DCD, defined as ≤5th percentile on the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-Second Edition. Perinatal risk factors were evaluated using multivariable logistic regression. DCD was present in 84/226 (37.2%) children. Of the risk factors known at 40 weeks gestation, independent and significant risk factors for DCD were: mother's age at delivery (odds ratio [OR] 1.73, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.07-2.80); pre-eclampsia (2.79, 1.14-6.80); mother born in a non-Nordic country (2.23, 1.00-4.99); gestational age per week increase (0.70, 0.50-0.99) and retinopathy of prematurity (2.48, 1.26-4.87). Of factors known at discharge, postnatal steroids exposure (2.24, 1.13-4.46) and mechanical ventilation (1.76, 1.06-2.09) were independent risk factors when added to the model in separate analyses. The risk of DCD in children born extremely preterm was multifactorial and associated with gestational age largely mediated by ROP, maternal factors, pre-eclampsia, administration of postnatal steroids and mechanical ventilation. These risk factors are common among children born extremely preterm, contributing to their high risk of DCD.

Risk of Developmental Coordination Disorder in 8- and 9-Year-Olds Following Newborn Cardiac and Non–Cardiac Surgery

To investigate the risk of developmental coordination disorder (DCD) and motor impairment for children aged 8 to 9 years following newborn surgery. Prospective longitudinal cohort study. Motor proficiency and risk of DCD were assessed using the Movement Assessment Battery for Children (second edition) for children born 37 weeks of gestation and older who had undergone newborn cardiac surgery (CS) or non-cardiac surgery (NCS). Children who had undergone CS were 3.0 times more likely than controls and 1.7 times more likely than children who had undergone NCS to score below the 15th centile on MABC-2 and have increased risk of DCD. Children who had undergone CS were 1.9 times more likely than controls and 1.4 times more likely than children who had undergone NCS to score below the fifth centile on MABC-2. The surgical population should be considered at an increased risk of DCD.

Commentary on “Risk of Developmental Coordination Disorder in 8- and 9-Year-Olds Following Newborn Cardiac and Non–Cardiac Surgery”

Commentary on “Risk of Developmental Coordination Disorder in 8- and 9-Year-Olds Following Newborn Cardiac and Non–Cardiac Surgery”

Associations of preterm and early-term birth with suspected developmental coordination disorder: a national retrospective cohort study in children aged 3–10 years

BackgroundThis study analyzed the motor development and suspected developmental coordination disorder of very and moderately preterm (< 34+0 gestational age), late preterm (34+0–36+6 gestational week), and early-term (37+0–38+6 gestational week) children compared to their full-term peers with a national population-based sample in China.MethodsA total of 1673 children (799 girls, 874 boys) aged 3–10 years old were individually assessed with the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-second edition (MABC-2). The association between gestational age and motor performance of children was analyzed using a multilevel regression model.ResultsThe global motor performance [β =  – 5.111, 95% confidence interval (CI) =  – 9.200 to – 1.022; P = 0.015] and balance (β =  – 5.182, 95% CI =  – 5.055 to – 1.158; P = 0.003) for very and moderately preterm children aged 3–6 years old were significantly lower than their full-term peers when adjusting for confounders. Late preterm and early-term children showed no difference. Moreover, very and moderately preterm children aged 3–6 years had a higher risk of suspected developmental coordination disorder (DCD) (≤ 5 percentile of MABC-2 score) when adjusting for potential confounders [odds ratio (OR) = 2.931, 95% CI = 1.067–8.054; P = 0.038]. Late preterm and early-term children showed no difference in motor performance from their full-term peers (each P > 0.05).ConclusionsOur findings have important implications for understanding motor impairment in children born at different gestational ages. Very and moderately preterm preschoolers have an increased risk of DCD, and long-term follow-up should be provided for early detection and intervention.

Psychometric Properties of the French European Little Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire (LDCDQ-FE): A Pilot Study

Aims The Little Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire (LDCDQ) is a parental questionnaire designed to identify preschool children at risk of Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD). This study aimed to translate and cross-culturally adapt the LDCDQ for French European informants (Little Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire-French European [LDCDQ-FE]) and to undertake a pilot examination of its psychometric properties on a French sample. Methods A thorough process of cultural adaptation was completed. The psychometric properties were examined with a sample of 154 French children aged to 5y11m (control = 121; clinically referred = 33). A sub-group of 34 children was assessed using the MABC-2 to measure convergent validity. Results Principal component analysis demonstrated a four-component structure, accounting for 67.5% of the variance. Internal consistency was acceptable to good (α = 0.74–0.89). Significant correlation between the LDCDQ-FE and the MABC-2 total scores showed convergent validity. Discriminant validity was supported by significant score differences between the clinically referred and a matched control sub-group. Using ROC curves, a cutoff of 67 was proposed for a sensitivity of 81.3% and a specificity of 77.8%. Conclusions Results show initial evidence of the psychometric properties of the LDCDQ-FE and are encouraging of its use to identify young preschoolers at risk for DCD. In future studies, the test-retest reliability should be investigated, and study sample sizes expanded.

Prenatal second-hand smoke exposure and the risk of suspected developmental coordination disorder in preschoolers: A nationwide retrospective cohort study in China.

Prenatal exposure to second-hand smoke (SHS) is associated with increased neurodevelopmental problems in children, however, its impact on the risk of developmental coordination disorder (DCD) in preschoolers have not been studied thoroughly. Herein, we probed this association based on a nationwide retrospective cohort study of 149,005 preschoolers in China. We divided the objects into the prenatal SHS-exposed group or the no prenatal smoke exposed group (NS-exposed group). Preschoolers were assessed for motor proficiency by the Chinese version of Little Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire (LDCDQ). Multivariable logistic regression was used to evaluate the associations. The prevalence of prenatal SHS exposure was 23.89%. Generally, the prevalence of suspected DCD was significantly higher in prenatal SHS-exposed group (16.38% VS. 14.19%, P < 0.001). With the increase of age, the mean total scores of LDCDQ of both boys and girls increased gradually; and the prevalence of suspected DCD in girls was higher than that in boys in the same age group. After adjusting for covariates, prenatal SHS exposure had the negative association with the total score of LDCDQ and increased the risk of suspected DCD. Our results suggest a need for interventions designed to reduce maternal SHS exposure during pregnancy, early screen for DCD and increase targeted movement and coordination skill training for vulnerable children.

Association of developmental coordination disorder with early-life exposure to fine particulate matter in Chinese preschoolers

Although fine particulate matter (PM2.5) is a neurotoxicant, little is known about whether early-life PM2.5 exposure is associated with an increased risk of developmental coordination disorder (DCD). We conducted a cohort study of 109 731 children aged 3-5 years from 551 county-level cities in China between April 2018 and December 2019. Residential PM2.5 exposure was estimated using a hybrid satellite-based exposure model. Children's motor performance was assessed using the Little DCD Questionnaire (LDCDQ). Linear mixed-effect models and generalized linear mixed models with a binomial distribution were used to examine the associations of PM2.5 exposure with LDCDQ scores and risk of DCD, respectively. Both prenatal and postnatal exposure to a higher level of PM2.5 was significantly associated with reduced total LDCDQ score, and the impacts were evident on subscales of control during movement and general coordination function but not fine motor function. For example, an interquartile range increase in PM2.5 exposure in ages 0-3 was associated with a 0.19 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.05, 0.33) decrement in the total score. Additionally, higher PM2.5 exposure was associated with increased risk of DCD, and the adjusted odds ratios were 1.06 (95% CI: 1.01, 1.10) and 1.06 (95% CI: 1.01, 1.13) for each interquartile range increase in PM2.5 exposure during the first trimester and the first 3 years, respectively. Children who were from rural areas, had neonatal intensive care unit admission, or were exclusively breastfed for less than 6months appeared to be more susceptible to PM2.5 exposure than their counterparts. Our findings provide robust evidence that early-life PM2.5 exposure contributes to an elevated risk of DCD.

Early signs of functioning and contextual factors in children 0 to 6years of age at high risk of or with developmental coordination disorder: A scoping review.

Developmental coordination disorder (DCD) can significantly impact body structures and functions, activities, participation and contextual factors. Using a scoping review methodology, we aimed to identify the characteristics or signs that can have an early impact on the development and functioning of children with DCD between 0 and 6years. We searched the Medline, Cochrane and PEDro databases. The screening of the 1580 articles obtained was conducted independently and in duplicate. From the included articles, among others, we extracted results that reported the early developmental characteristics of children at high risk or diagnosed with DCD, the components of the International Classification of Functioning (ICF) and the F-Words studied in the results or the agents involved in the evaluation. Seventeen articles were included in the review. From them, a set of early signs of DCD-general and specific-were collected that reflected the existence of restrictions in daily life activities from an early age and in certain routines, such as eating, dressing, grooming or playing. The most studied components of the ICF were activities and participation, with functioning being the most studied F-word. Detection of activity limitations and restrictions in participation between 0 and 6years in children with DCD is possible. Recognition of parental concerns and early assessment could facilitate the follow-up of children at high risk for DCD and their inclusion in screening programs that include standardized tools for their diagnosis.

Association of the Onset of Self-Feeding With Subsequent Suspected Developmental Coordination Disorder: A Prospective Cohort Study in China.

BackgroundSuccessful self-feeding reflects the readiness of early motor development and environmental impacts, and the onset of self-feeding as a developmental milestone might be a predictor of subsequent motor development in children. In this study, we explored the association between the onset of self-feeding and childhood risk of Developmental Coordination Disorder in children from one-child and two-child families.MethodsWe conducted a data-linkage prospective cohort study from 38 kindergartens in 6 cities in China. A total of 11,727 preschoolers aged 3–6 years old were included in the final analysis and were assessed with the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-second edition (MABC-2) Test. The information on early self-feeding onset was obtained from parents. The mixed and multi-level logistic models utilizing a random intercept were used to investigate the associations between the onset time of self-feeding and subsequent motor performance.ResultsThe results showed that, compared with those beginning self-feeding at or younger than 12 months of age, children starting self-feeding at 13–24, 25–36, and later than 36 months, showed a decrease in their total MABC-2 scores of 2.181, 3.026, and 3.874, respectively; and had an increased risk of suspected DCD by 36.0, 101.6, 102.6%, respectively; they also had 30.2, 46.6, 71.2% increased prevalence of at risk of suspected DCD, when adjusting for both child and family characteristics (each p < 0.05). Significant associations were observed in fine motor, gross motor, and balance subtests (each p < 0.05) in groups with a delayed onset of self-feeding. However, the strength of the associations was mitigated in the fine motor and balance subtests in children with a sibling.ConclusionThe delayed onset time of self-feeding acts as an early behavioral marker for later childhood motor impairment. Moreover, children with a sibling may benefit from additional interaction and their motor developmental pattern may be affected by the presence of a sibling.

Early factors associated with risk of developmental coordination disorder in very preterm children: A prospective area‐based cohort study in Italy

BackgroundDevelopmental coordination disorder (DCD) is a motor disorder of unknown aetiology that may have long‐term consequences on daily activities, and psychological and physical health. Studies investigating risk factors for DCD have so far provided inconsistent results.ObjectivesTo assess, using a parent‐report screening tool, risk of DCD in school‐age very preterm children born in Italy, and investigate the associated early biomedical and sociodemographic factors.MethodsA prospective area‐based cohort (804 children, response rate 73.4%) was assessed at 8–11 years of age in three Italian regions. Perinatal data were abstracted from medical records. DCD risk was measured using the Italian‐validated version of the Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire (DCDQ‐IT). For this study, children with cognitive deficit (i.e. intelligence quotient <70), cerebral palsy, severe vision and hearing disabilities, and other impairments affecting movement were excluded. A total of 629 children were analysed. We used inverse probability weighting to account for loss to follow‐up, and multilevel, multivariable modified Poisson models to obtain adjusted risk ratio (aRR) and 95% confidence interval (CI). Missing values in the covariates were imputed.Results195 children (weighted proportion 31.8%, 95% CI 28.2, 35.6) scored positive on the DCDQ‐IT, corresponding to the 15th centile of the reference Movement‐ABC test. Factors associated with overall DCD risk were male sex (aRR 1.35, 95% CI 1.05, 1.73), intrauterine growth restriction (aRR 1.45, 95% CI 1.14, 1.85), retinopathy of prematurity (aRR 1.62, 95% CI 1.07, 2.45), and older maternal age at delivery (aRR 1.39, 95% CI 1.09, 1.77). Complete maternal milk feeding at discharge from the neonatal unit and higher parental socio‐economic status were associated with decreased risk.ConclusionsBoth biomedical and sociodemographic factors increase DCD risk. These findings can contribute to elucidating the origins of this disorder, and assist in the identification of children at risk for early referral and intervention.

Psychometric Properties of the Little Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire-Taiwan.

Early identification of young children at risk of developmental coordination disorder (DCD) can support early intervention and prevent secondary sequelae. To examine the psychometric properties of a translated and cross-culturally adapted version of the Little Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire-Taiwan (LDCDQ-TW). Prospective study. Kindergartens and preschools in north, central, and south Taiwan. In Phase 1 the participants were 1,124 parents of typically developing children ages 36-71 mo. Children with confirmed developmental diagnoses were excluded. Participants in Phase 3 were 162 children who had been recruited in Phase 2. Outcomes and Measures: The LDCDQ-TW, a 15-item parent questionnaire for identifying children at risk for DCD, and the Movement Assessment Battery for Children (2nd ed.; MABC-2), were administered. The findings revealed excellent test-retest reliability (intraclass correlation coefficient [ICC] = .97) and poor interrater reliability (ICC = .47). On the basis of MABC-2 scores, the non-DCD group (≥15th percentile) scored significantly higher than the DCD and suspect-DCD groups on the LDCDQ-TW, but the latter two groups did not differ from one another. Using the 15th percentile as a cutoff for both the MABC-2 and the LDCDQ-TW, sensitivity was .96 and specificity was .68. Although standardized performance-based assessments are required to confirm a diagnosis of DCD (typically after age 5 yr), the LDCDQ-TW demonstrated sound reliability and validity and can support the early identification of young children at risk of DCD in Taiwan. What This Article Adds: The LDCDQ-TW can facilitate early intervention for DCD and prevent secondary sequelae, improving outcomes for children with DCD.

Investigating the mediating role of internalizing and externalizing problems on physical fitness in children at risk for Developmental Coordination Disorder

Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) have poorer fitness and greater internalizing/externalizing problems compared with typically developing (TD) children. The purpose of this study was to examine the potential mediating role of internalizing/externalizing problems on the relationship between children at risk for DCD (DCDr) and physical fitness. Participants (N = 589) included 288 children with DCDr (Mage = 4.9, 67% male) and 301 TD children (Mage = 5.0, 48% male). Motor skills were assessed using the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2nd edition (DCDr: at or below the 16th percentile, TD: >16th percentile). Parent-reported internalizing/externalizing problems were measured using the Child Behaviour Checklist. Physical fitness was measured using the Bruce protocol maximal treadmill test and a 30-second Wingate test. Tests for indirect (mediation) effects were assessed using the PROCESS v3.5 software macro. Children with DCDr had higher internalizing and externalizing problems (p < 0.001, d = 0.35-0.46) and poorer fitness levels (p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.05-0.09). Internalizing problems mediated fitness performance on both the treadmill and Wingate test; however, externalizing problems showed no mediating effects. Thus, interventions targeting internalizing problems may contribute to improving performance on fitness-based tasks among children with DCDr. Novelty: Children at risk for DCD have poorer fitness when compared with TD children. Children at risk for DCD experience greater internalizing/externalizing problems. Internalizing problems were found to mediate the DCD-physical fitness relationship.

Association of Gestational Age at Birth With Subsequent Suspected Developmental Coordination Disorder in Early Childhood in China

It remains unknown whether children born at different degrees of prematurity, early term, and post term might have a higher risk of developmental coordination disorder (DCD) compared with completely full-term children (39-40 gestational weeks). To differentiate between suspected DCD in children with different gestational ages based on a national representative sample in China. A retrospective cohort study was conducted in China from April 1, 2018, to December 31, 2019. A total of 152 433 children aged 3 to 5 years from 2403 public kindergartens in 551 cities of China were included in the final analysis. A multilevel regression model was developed to determine the strength of association for different gestational ages associated with suspected DCD when considering kindergartens as clusters. Children's motor performance was assessed using the Little Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire, completed by their parents. Gestational age was determined according to the mother's medical records and divided into 7 categories: completely full term (39 to 40 weeks' gestation), very preterm (<32 weeks), moderately preterm (32-33 weeks), late preterm (34-36 weeks), early term (37-38 weeks), late term (41 weeks), and post term (>41 weeks). A total of 152 433 children aged 3 to 5 years (mean [SD] age, 4.5 [0.8] years), including 80 370 boys (52.7%) and 72 063 girls (47.3%), were included in the study. There were 45 052 children (29.6%) aged 3 years, 59 796 (39.2%) aged 4 years, and 47 585 (31.2%) aged 5 years. Children who were born very preterm (odds ratio [OR], 1.35; 95% CI, 1.23-1.48), moderately preterm (OR, 1.18; 95% CI, 1.02-1.36), late preterm (OR, 1.24; 95% CI, 1.16-1.32), early term (OR, 1.11; 95% CI, 1.06-1.16), and post term (OR, 1.17; 95% CI, 1.07-1.27) were more likely to be classified in the suspected DCD category on the Little Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire than completely full-term children after adjusting for the same characteristics. Additionally, there was no association with suspected DCD in younger (aged 3 years) early-term and postterm children by stratified analyses. In this cohort study, every degree of prematurity at birth, early-term birth, and postterm birth were associated with suspected DCD when compared with full-term birth. These findings have important implications for understanding motor development in children born at different gestational ages. Long-term follow-up and rehabilitation interventions should be considered for children born early and post term.

Cross-Sectional Associations Between Wake-Time Movement Compositions and Mental Health in Preschool Children With and Without Motor Coordination Problems.

Movement behaviors have been found to be important correlates of health for children and may be particularly important for children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) who often experience greater mental health problems. To date, however, little research has investigated the daily movement composition of preschool children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) and/or its association with mental health. The purpose of the current study was to: (1) examine whether differences in movement compositions (i.e., sedentary time, light physical activity, moderate-to-vigorous physical activity) exist between typically developing (TD) preschool-age children and those at risk for DCD (rDCD); and (2) investigate associations between movement compositions and mental health indicators. This cross-sectional study used the baseline cohort data from the Coordination and Activity Tracking in CHildren (CATCH) study. A total of 589 preschool-age children (Mage = 4.94 ± 0.59 years; 57.4% boys) were included in this analysis, of which 288 scored at or below the 16th percentile on the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 and were thus classified as rDCD. Wake time movement behaviors were measured using accelerometers and parents completed the Child Behavior Checklist to assess their child's mental health (i.e., internalizing and externalizing problems). Compositional data analysis techniques were used. After adjusting for potential confounders, the results demonstrated similar movement compositions between TD and rDCD children. Among the full sample, findings revealed a significant association between sedentary time and externalizing problems, however, each of the other associations did not reach statistical significance. These results are consistent with emerging evidence demonstrating similar patterns of physical activity and sedentary time among TD children and those classified as rDCD during the preschool years. Although movement behaviors explained little variance in mental health during this period, future research should investigate when movement compositions diverge, and how these changes may impact the mental health of TD children and those classified as rDCD later in childhood.

School Readiness in Children Born

The objective of this study was to determine whether school readiness differs between children born <30 weeks' gestation who are classified as at risk for developmental coordination disorder (DCD) and those who are not. This study was a prospective cohort study of children born <30 weeks' gestation. Children were classified as at risk for DCD at a corrected age of 4 to 5 years if they scored <16th centile on the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-Second Edition (MABC-2), had a full scale IQ score of ≥80 on the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence-Fourth Edition (WPPSI-IV), and had no cerebral palsy. Children were assessed on 4 school readiness domains: (1) health/physical development [Physical Health domain of Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory (PedsQL), Pediatric Evaluation of Disability Inventory Computer Adaptive Test, and Little Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire], (2) social-emotional development (Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire and PedsQL psychosocial domains), (3) cognitive skills/general knowledge (WPPSI-IV), and (4) language skills (WPPSI-IV). Of 123 children assessed, 16 were ineligible (IQ < 80 or cerebral palsy: n = 15; incomplete MABC-2: n = 1); 28 of 107 (26%) eligible children were at risk for DCD. Children at risk for DCD had poorer performance on all school readiness domains, with group differences of more than 0.4 SD in health/physical development, social-emotional development, and language skills and up to 0.8 SD for cognitive skills/general knowledge compared with those not at risk of DCD. Being at risk for DCD in children born <30 weeks' gestation is associated with challenges in multiple school readiness domains, not only the health/physical domain.